Tuesday, January 28, 2020

Individual Learner Differences In Second Language Acquisition Education Essay

Individual Learner Differences In Second Language Acquisition Education Essay 1. Introduction The fact that competency levels attained by second language learners fluctuate so greatly (Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 53), raises an intriguing question with regards to second language acquisition (SLA), why are some individuals better at acquiring language than others? A major reason for this variation in L2 proficiency levels is commonly attributed to individual learner differences (ILDs), (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2005: 2). This essay sets out to explain the important role that ILDs play in SLA, through an in-depth discussion on the contribution made by L2 motivation. Three influential theories offering different perspectives on L2 motivation: the Socio-educational model, self-determination theory and the Process model will be discussed in detail. I will also look at the theoretical shifts currently taking place in L2 motivation research, before concluding with a discussion on the strategies that teachers can use to instil and nurture motivation in their students. 2. Role of ILDs in SLA Individual differences are unique learning characteristics which are present in all learners to varying degrees. They can help to distinguish learning needs and identify the extent to which learners will succeed in acquiring a second language (Lightbown and Spada, 2006). These differences are social, cognitive and affective in nature, and include aptitude, motivation, age, personality, learning strategies, learning styles and anxiety (for detailed reviews, see for example, Naiman et al 1995; Skehan 1989; DÃ ¶rnyei 2005). Their relevance to language achievement has made ILDs, a focus of considerable attention in SLA research (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2005). Developments in research, especially in relation to aptitude and motivation, has seen a shift from a product-orientated approach to a more process-orientated stance (ibid: 6). Recent studies have highlighted the importance of the temporal nature and situational context of learner characteristics (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2009). Current arguments however, have suggested that rather than being monolithic variables, ILDs are complex attributes consisting of a combination of sub-components and sub-processes (ibid). All ILDs are implicated in language learning, however they do not function in isolation and some even have elements in common (Gardner, 2008). A look at some of the influential theories which have emerged from research on L2 motivation over the last fifty years will help to explain the complex role that ILDs can play in the language learning process. 3. L2 Motivation Motivation is a learners orientation towards learning goals (Gardner, 1985), and is regarded by many as the most influential ILD in the language learning process (Ellis, 1985). Therefore its relevance to the classroom environment becomes evident, and to know what drives this motivation is of great pedagogic interest. Many of the learner characteristics involved in the SLA process are dependent on, and in some cases completely overridden by motivation (Gardner, 2006). A learner with a natural aptitude for learning languages, for example, may find it difficult to attain long-term language goals without the necessary motivation (ibid). On the other hand, high levels of motivation may lead to successful learning, even where little aptitude exists for language (ibid). Theories looking to explain the role of motivation in language learning have evolved through four main stages. DÃ ¶rnyei (2005) categorises these as: the Social Psychological period (1959-1990); the Cognitive-Situated period (1990s); the Process-orientated stage (late 1990s); and finally a period (last decade) consisting of new approaches that have focused on a learners sense of self-identity. Table 1 summarises the main L2 motivation theories and concepts. 3.1. The Social Psychological approach to L2 motivation Interest in L2 motivation was initiated by social psychologists Wallace Lambert, Robert Gardner and associates as early as 1959, looking to understand the language and cultural Approach to motivation Examples Social-psychological Socio-educational model, (Gardner, 1985). Key concepts: Integrative motivation, Integrativeness, integrative orientation. Theory of Linguistic self-confidence, (Clement, 1986). Key concepts: Self-confidence a self-belief of having the ability to manage the learning process. Cognitive Situated Self-determination theory, (Brown, 1994; Noels et al., 2000). Key concepts: intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, amotivation. Attribution theory, (Weiner, 1992). Key concepts: attributing past success or failure to current actions. Goal setting theory, (Oxford and Shearin, 1994). Key concepts: Cognitive perception of goals as a motivating factor. Goal orientation theory, (Ames, 1992). Key concepts: Goal mastery andperformance orientations. Motivation and learner strategy use, (Oxford and Nyikos; 1989, Macintyre et al., 1996). Key concepts: Motivation as a key factor in stimulating strategy use. Task Motivation, (Julkunen, 2001; Dornyei, 2003). Key concepts: task execution, appraisal, action control. Mixed approach i. Willingness to communicate, (Macintyre et al., 1998, 2003). Key concepts: Willingness to communicate as a key factor for achieving communicative competency. Process-orientated Process model, (Dornyei and Otto, 1998; Dornyei, 2001b). Key concepts: temporal nature of motivation, which includes a preactional/actional/postactional stage. Current and future L2 motivational self system, (Dornyei, 2005). Key concepts: ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self. Complex dynamic systems, (Larsen-Freeman, 2007). Key concepts: integrating different theoretical perspectives. Table 1. Some of the different approaches used in L2 motivation research conflicts between English and French speaking communities in Canada. Their research adopted a socio-psychological approach, based on the central idea that a learners success in acquiring a second language is dictated by an attitude towards the target language community (Gardner, 1985). Their research on students learning French showed that aptitude and motivation are closely associated with achievement in language learning (ibid). They concluded that motivation is characterised by an individuals willingness to be like members of the target community (ibid). A model based on a socio-psychological approach that has been very influential in L2 motivation research is Gardners socio-educational model (see for example, Gardner and Lambert, 1972; Gardner, 1985; Gardner and MacIntyre, 1991). The most recent version of this model is shown in figure 1. LANGUAGE ACHIEVMENT Other Factors (for example, Learning strategies, language ANXIETY (Gardner, 2001)) Other Support LANGUAGE APTITUDE INTEGRATIVE MOTIVATION INTEGRATIVENESS MOTIVATION ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE LEARNING SIITUATION Figure 1. A basic model of the role of motivation in SLA (adapted from Gardner (2001b)). The most elaborate and researched aspect of Gardners model is integrative motivation, which he defines as the motivation to learn a L2 because of a positive attitude towards, and a desire to integrate with that community (Gardner, 2001b). The three variables that constitute integrative motivation are (ibid): Integrativeness this represents a desire to learn a second language to identify with the target community, and is reflected in a learners behaviour through the following: An integrative orientation, representing the reason for learning, which in this case is an interest in learning an L2 to interact with the target community. A positive attitude towards the target language group. An interest in foreign languages or a general openness to all language groups. Attitudes towards the learning situation (ATLS) this refers to attitudes towards the language teacher, the course in general, the course materials and other factors related to the learning context. Motivation this is a learners goal driven behaviour. A motivated learner: makes a concerted effort to learn a language, for example by doing extra work and seeking more learning opportunities, displays a strong desire to learn a language and is focused on achieving the goal, enjoys learning and has an overall positive attitude towards the learning process. An integratively motivated learner is therefore: motivated to learn a second language, keen to interact and be associated with the target community, and has a positive outlook on the learning situation. To sustain consistent levels of motivation, integrativeness and/or a positive ATLS are essential characteristics, however, it is the motivation element of the Integrative Motivation complex that is the active variable and which directly influences Language Achievement (Gardner, 2001b: 6). Therefore, a learner who has a high level of integrativeness and/or a positive attitude towards learning, but is low in motivation is unlikely to achieve high levels of proficiency. The affect of instrumental factors on L2 motivation was not included in Gardners core theory, but he suggests that they could be one of the other supports affecting motivation (Gardner, 2001a: 7). Based on this, it is possible to substitute integrativeness with instrumentality in the representation of the model in figure 1, to give what Gardner calls Instrumental Motivation (ibid). This is a motivation to learn a L2 for instrumental gains, such as better employment or education. An instrumentally motivated learner has specific communicative needs, which provide a purpose for learning and an impetus for successful language acquisition (Gardner and Lambert, 1972). Gardners model makes little reference to other attributes, for example, personal aspirations and past experiences, which could affect an integratively motivated learner. However, empirical research in different contexts is continuously bringing to light the possibility of including more factors in the general L2 motivational construct. To check Gardners model for adaptability, Tremblay and Gardner (1995) integrated other measurements of motivation, such as anxiety and goal-setting strategies. Empirical testing of the extended model showed that addition of the extra variables did not affect the structure of the original model (ibid). Research on motivation in different context has led some applied linguists to suggest the notion of the language community associated with integrative motivation is untenable for international learners of English (Ushioda and DÃ ¶rnyei, 2009). In a multi-lingual society like China, for example, few opportunities exist for interacting with native English communities. In such a context, instrumental motivation or external factors (for example, exams and employment) are more prevalent among learners than a desire for integrating with native speakers of English (Warden and Lin, 2008). For this reason, other researchers have suggested that the integrative construct should at least be re-examined by including the global L2 learning context and the multi-dimensionality of a learners identity. DÃ ¶rnyei and Csizer, (2002) suggested that rather than identifying with an external language community, the integrative concept could be more accurately linked to a learners internal process of identification with a self-concept. DÃ ¶rnyeis (2005) motivational self-system which developed from this idea is discussed in section 3.4. 3.2. Self-Determination Theory and SLA Influenced by advances in motivational psychology, and a need to understand the classroom-situated nature of motivation, L2 research moved on from a socio-psychological approach, to look at affects of classroom-situated factors on motivation. Self-determination theory (SDT) is a highly influential approach in motivational psychology, and several studies have attempted to incorporate some of its components to explain L2 motivation (for example, Brown, 1994; Noels et al., 2000). According to this theory there are three types of learner motivations: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation (Deci and Ryan, 2002). These motivations form a continuum depending on the degree of learner self-determination, where self-determination is as an individuals sense of choice and control over the learning process (ibid). Intrinsic Motivation (IM) refers to an individuals motivation to undertake an activity, purely for personal feelings of pleasure and enjoyment associated with that activity, and is driven by a desire for competence and self-determination (Noel et al., 2000). Intrinsically motivated students are considered more likely to achieve autonomy, competence and fulfil long-term language goals (Ramage, 1990). Extrinsic motivation (EM), on the other hand, relates to actions carried out for: instrumental gains, in search for reward or to avoid punishment (Noels et al., 2000). This motivation can vary in degree depending on the extent to which the activity is controlled by the learner or other variables (Deci and Ryan, 2002). Vallerand et al., (1993) have suggested six subtypes of IM and EM which lie on a continuum of self-determination (see table 2). Noels (2001) suggests that L2 learner motivation can be assessed using the intrinsic and extrinsic constructs. These motivations however, do not necessarily have to be exclusive, for example, a learner whose behaviour is consistent with identified regulation may also exhibit some of the adjacent motivations on the continuum (ibid). Self-Determination Type of Motivation Description HIGH Zero Intrinsic Motivation to know Performing an activity for the pleasure associated with learning or exploring new knowledge. E.g., when reading a new book. Intrinsic Motivation to accomplish Performing an activity for the pleasure associated with accomplishing or creating something. E.g., a student doing more homework than is required. Intrinsic Motivation to experience stimulation Performing an activity for the stimulated sensations (e.g. pleasure and excitement) associated with engagement with the activity. E.g., a student who goes to class for the pleasure of participating in discussions. Extrinsic Motivation Identified Regulation Extrinsic motivation is internalised to the extent that learner behaviour is regulated by a sense of value and usefulness of the activity to the self. E.g., a student who studies the night before an exam because they think it is important to them. Extrinsic Motivation Introjected Regulation Learner behaviour is regulated by internalisation of past external means. E.g., studying the night before an exam because it is expected of a good student. Extrinsic Motivation External Regulation Learner behaviour is regulated completely by external means (rewards or constraints) showing the least self-determined form of extrinsic motivation. E.g., Studying the night before an exam because of pressure from parents. Amotivation A lack of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. A learner feels their behaviour is regulated by factors out of their control, and may eventually drop out of the learning process. Table 2. Language Learning Orientation Scale: Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation and Amotivation (adapted from Vallerand et al., (1993)). Intrinsic motivation is characterised by a strong sense of self-determination, and is closely associated with integrative motivation (Noels, 2001). This suggests that students learning a language for pleasure may also be seeking interaction with the L2 community. Intrinsic motivation however, is identified more with attitudes towards learning, than the target community (ibid: 54). The social environment (for example, the teacher, family members and the L2 community) has considerable influence on a students perception of self-determination. A teacher plays a significant role in this regard, and can promote intrinsic motivation by encouraging learner autonomy and providing positive feedback (Noels, 2000: 55). Similarly, students learning for intrinsic reasons are more sensitive to the teachers instructional style (ibid). In contrast, the less self-determined external regulation component of extrinsic motivation is linked to instrumental behaviour (Noels, 2001: 53). A limitation of extrinsic behaviour is that it can have short-term characteristics. A study carried out by Ramage (1990) showed that students who learnt a language for academic reasons are more likely to discontinue future language classes. Extrinsic course pressures, for example, compulsory reading, can also negatively affect a learners intrinsic interests (DÃ ¶rnyei, 1994a). 3.3. A Process-orientated approach to motivation DÃ ¶rnyei and Ottos (1998) process model of motivation integrates various theoretical perspectives of L2 motivation, and draws attention to the temporal nature of motivation in classroom learning. The model is influenced by Heckhausen and Kuhls Action control theory, which proposes two sequential phases of motivational behaviour: an individuals motivation to form an attention, and a motivation to initiate and sustain the intended action (Heckhausen, 1991). DÃ ¶rnyei and Ottos model breaks down the motivational process into three temporal phases. The first relates to the transformation of initial desires to goals, and then intentions. The next sees these intentions being enacted, leading to the successful/unsuccessful accomplishment of goals, and the final phase is an overall evaluation of the learning process (see figure 2). Preactional Stage (Choice Motivation) Motivational Functions: generate motivation to select a goal; form an intention to act; select an action plan to enact the intention. Possible factors influencing motivation: goal properties; attitude towards the learning process; attitude towards the target community; perception of self-ability; social environmental encouragement or discouragement. Actional Stage (Executive Motivation) Motivational Functions: carry out sub-tasks to maintain motivation; ongoing appraisal of achievement; action control (self-regulation to help persevere with learning). Possible factors influencing motivation: quality of the learning experience; degree of autonomy; teacher, learner group and family influence/support; classroom structure (competitive or co-operative); knowledge and ability to use self-motivating, goal-setting and learning strategies. Postactional Stage (Motivational Retrospection) Motivational Functions: attribute reasons to success or failure; elaborate internal standards and action-specific strategies; dismiss original intention and further planning. Possible factors influencing motivation: personal attribution style; self-confidence; feedback. Figure 2. Process model of L2 learning motivation (adapted from Dornyei, (2003: 19)). An important assertion made by the process-orientated model is that motivational behaviour is influenced by different factors. Consequently, different theories of motivation can be associated with each phase (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2003: 18). Integrativeness, for example, may be the motivational influence on goal setting in the preactional stage. In the executive phase, situated aspects of motivation play a greater role, mechanisms of the task processing system are more relevant here (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2003). The retrospective links that learners make between the original goal and actual achievement in the post-actional stage are likely to be attributed to past learning experiences, a motivational behaviour addressed by Weiner (1992) in the attribution theory. Two aspects that the model overlooks are: the possibility of several actional processes running concurrently, or an actional process with multiple motivational influences (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2003). This is likely in a school setting, where students often have multiple goals (for example, social and academic) and overlapping motivational influences (for example, task, course or curriculum related) (ibid). The model assumes that the actional processes have defined boundaries, however in an educational context it may be difficult to identify where one actional process starts and the next begins. 3.4. Present and future: The motivational self-system and a Dynamic systems approach. Since the socio-psychological period of motivation research, the global reality of English has changed immensely. The rapid globalisation of English has challenged the validity of many SLA theories (Kachru, 1988), because these theories fail to consider the context of the world Englishes learner (Sridhar and Sridhar, 1992). With limited or no contact opportunities with the native target community, the notion of a self-concept (referring to an individuals images and cognitions of the self) suggested by DÃ ¶rnyei and Csizer (2002), is possibly a more relevant motivational feature in many EFL contexts. DÃ ¶rnyei developed this idea further, in his L2 motivational self-system, which equated integrativeness with an ideal L2 self (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2005; 2010). The main components of this system are: (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2010) Ideal L2 Self a L2-specific image of the attributes that one would like to possess. For example, hopes, desires, aspirations. Ought-to L2 Self a self-guide which refers to those attributes one thinks one ought to possess to meet expectations and avoid negative outcomes. L2 Learning Experience this refers to the executive motives (similar to those identified in the Process model) associated with the immediate learning environment and experience. For example, impact of the teacher, other learners, the course, the experience of success. The hypothesis behind the self-system is that a learners desire to become a person proficient in the L2, serves as a powerful motivating force to learn a language (Ushioda and DÃ ¶rnyei, 2009: 3-4). A recent study in the Japanese context showed that this desire represented by the ideal L2 self is equivalent to the concept of integrativeness in Gardners socio-educational model, but the ideal L2 self is probably more accurate in explaining motivated behaviour (Ryan, 2009) DÃ ¶rnyeis idea of placing the self at the centre of the conceptual role of motivation offers a new perspective, however it overlooks the process-orientated, and contextually dynamic nature of motivation. Justifying this complex nature of L2 motivation, can only be possible by integrating more than one approach (Macintyre et al., 2010). A possibility of combining different perspectives of motivation is suggested by Ushioda (2009) with her person-in-context, relational view of emergent motivation. She suggests that integrating relevant theoretical frameworks to support future analysis of the complex nature of interactional processes and contextual factors in motivational behaviour can help to provide a better understanding of how L2 motivation is shaped (ibid). A similar possibility is offered by the theoretical paradigms of dynamic systems theory (for a detailed review, see Larsen-Freeman and Cameron, 2008). This theory involves a study of systems, where the system is analysed as a whole rather than as its individual parts (ibid). Learner variation is seen as the result of a complex system of relevant factors working in unison, rather than as a result of differences in individual determinants (for example, aptitude or motivation) (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2009). As an example of an application of a dynamic systems approach to L2 learning, DÃ ¶rnyei suggests the possibility of identifying an optimal combination of motivational, cognitive and affective factors with regard to task behaviour, that function as an integrated unit (for a detailed review see, ibid). 4. The practical value of theory motivational strategies for the classroom Chomsky (1988) emphasises the vital role played by teachers in learner motivation by suggesting that ninety nine per cent of teaching involves getting students interested in learning. A language teachers motivational practice is also linked directly to increased levels of learner motivation (Guilloteaux and DÃ ¶rnyei, 2008). Therefore, the need to use appropriate strategies to manage classroom motivation is extremely relevant to L2 practitioners. Motivational strategies are techniques used by a teacher to manage learner motivation, or used by individual learners to regulate their own motivation levels (Guilloteaux and DÃ ¶rnyei, 2008). Although, several motivation strategies have been proposed in L2 literature (for example, Williams and Burden, 1997; DÃ ¶rnyei, 2001a; Alison and Halliwell, 2002), very few are supported by empirical evidence. Self-motivating strategies for learners are an even less researched area of L2 motivation (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2006). An example of an elaborate, theory-based framework which looks at motivational strategies from both a teacher and leaner perspective is proposed by DÃ ¶rnyei (2001a). This model consists of four phases (ibid): Creating the basic motivational condition, by establishing a good student-teacher relationship, a relaxed learning atmosphere and a cohesive learner group. Generating initial motivation by: Strengthening language related values and attitudes (intrinsic, integrative or instrumental values). Increasing the expectancy of success. Increasing goal-orientedness, for example, by making learners aware of the practical (non-syllabus related) reasons or value of doing an activity. Making teaching materials relevant. Creating realistic learner beliefs. Many new learners have inaccurate beliefs about language learning, a realisation of their falseness can have a demotivating influence. Maintaining and protecting motivation, to keep sight of goals, and maintain interest and concentration. The most relevant strategies in this phase include: Making the learning process stimulating and interesting. Presenting tasks in a motivating manner, making them stimulating and relevant. Setting specific learner goals. Preserving the learners self-esteem and promoting their self-confidence. Creating learner autonomy. Promoting self-motivating learner strategies in order to: Preserve the original goal commitment, for example, by encouraging learners to remember favourable expectations or positive rewards. Maintain concentration, for example, by encouraging learners to: identify and manage distractions; and focus on the first steps to take when beginning an activity. Eliminate boredom and add extra interest in a task, for example, by showing learners how to add a twist to a task and using their imagination to make it more stimulating. Manage disruptive emotions and generate a positive emotional state, for example, by getting students to self-encourage and introducing them to relaxation techniques. Remove negative and utilise positive environmental influences, for example, by encouraging students to remove distractions and asking for peer help. Encouraging positive retrospective self-evaluation, by : Promoting positive learner attributions (an idea supported by the Attribution theory, Weiner, 1992) Providing motivational feedback, that is informative and encouraging. This can help to increase learner satisfaction and self-confidence, and encourages constructive self-reflection on weaknesses. Using rewards and grades cautiously, as they can distract the learner from the real purpose of the task (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2006:730). When they are used, they should be offered in a motivational manner. The most motivating of teachers are considered to be those who rely on a few simple and carefully selected techniques (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2006: 730-731). Therefore, achieving optimal levels of learner motivation are more likely if motivational strategies are matched by a teacher selectively, to learners specific needs. 5. Conclusion This essay discussed the significant role that motivation, as an example of an ILD variable, plays in the long and arduous task of second language acquisition. I presented three influential theories that have approached L2 motivation from different perspectives, and looked at some of the current trends in motivational research. A look at some possible motivational strategies demonstrated how theoretical concepts can be applied to improve the quality of classroom learning. The motivational characteristics of the L2 learner highlight the complex but influential role played by ILDs in SLA. Many of the variables involved in L2 motivation have a degree of overlap, and interact both with each other and other ILDs (Gardner, 2008). In order to understand the true nature of these webs of interactions and their affect on L2 achievement, the possibilities offered by a dynamic systems approach is probably the best way forward.

Sunday, January 19, 2020

The Gamma Knife Improves Treatment of Brain Disorders Essay -- Explora

The Gamma Knife Improves Treatment of Brain Disorders Advanced treatment for brain tumors and brain disorders, the Gamma Knife is a tool being utilized to treat thousands of functional brain disorders every year without the danger involved in invasive procedures. Not many people can say they were up and about the same day after treatment of a brain tumor. This is now possible with the Gamma Knife, a technology utilizing gamma rays to treat brain disorders successfully and with no incision. These requirements are essential when trying to treat the disorders in a sensitive organ as the brain, where millimeters may mean the difference between life or death or brain damage. Developed in 1968 by Swedish neurosurgeon Lars Leksell, the Gamma Knife was not used until many years later when advanced diagnostic methods were developed. With the advent of technology such as the MRI and CT scan, the Gamma Knife's full capabilities are finally being realized. Conditions often treated with the technology are arteriovenus malformations, acoustic neuromas, meningiomas, pituitary adenomas, and brain metastases. The risk of surgical complications is non-existent since the procedure is performed without an incision. It is also almost painless; patients usually opt for just local anesthesia and a mild sedative. The patient's head does not even need to be shaved for the procedure. During invasive procedures, surgeons are forced to actually penetrate the brain and work with MRI and CAT scan pictures to locate tumors and remove them. This is often an inaccurate procedure that may leave portions of the tumor still in the brain and require another operation. Another downside to invasive procedure is that tumo... ...Knife is also cost-effective. With no need for long hospital stays or rehabilitation, the procedure is obviously highly recommended by medical-insurance providers. The Gamma Knife is revolutionizing the treatment of brain disorders. Before, when a cancer spread to the brain, it was considered a terminal illness. Now, a patient is able to walk in and be treated in just a half hour. There have not even been any reported deaths or complications resulting from the procedure. It is being bought for use in many hospitals around the world and may be, in the not too distant future, as common as any other surgical procedure performed today. Bibliography http://www.chw.edu/mha/Gamma/gamma.html http://www.chw.edu/mha/Gamma/Q&A.html http://gammaknife.org/technical.html "Magnetic Resonance Imaging", Encarta. Microsoft Corporation, 1997.

Saturday, January 11, 2020

Impact Of Attitude And Information

Abstraction: This survey investigated the effects of pupils ‘ attitude, instruction and larning methodological analysis on accomplishment in mathematical geometric building. The survey was carried out as a consequence of uninterrupted hapless public presentation in geometric building in Senior Secondary Schools, a 3 twelvemonth progressive educational plan in Nigeria. A purpose sample comprised of 35 Male and 27 Female pupils from two integral categories of different private secondary schools in the Lagos Mainland Local Government Area of Lagos State was used for the survey. A 28 ( 28 ) – point questionnaire titled, â€Å" Survey of Attitude to Mathematicss † ( SAM ) , to happen out the pupils ‘ attitude to mathematics by and large and geometric building in peculiar, and A 3- point word- job type, teacher made Mathematics Achievement Test in Geometric Construction ( MATGC ) instruments were used to carry on the survey. An experimental group was taught utiliz ing computing machine and based on constructivist theory of larning for a period of 12 contact hours over a period of 4 hebdomads. The responses of the questionnaires were subjected to descriptive analyses while the MATGC tonss were subjected to t-test, Pearson correlativity coefficient and arrested development analysis. Consequences revealed that attitude appeared to play a minimum function in accomplishment of geometric building in mathematics. In malice of divergent earlier findings on impact of instructional methodological analysis on accomplishment and attitude, this survey revealed the constructivist attack as a better attack in learning as it had a positive impact on accomplishment and attitude towards the subject. The survey farther revealed that male pupils performed better than female pupils. Deduction of all these findings calls for reappraisal of mathematics curriculum by inclusion of Assisted Delivery Method in learning geometric building in schools. A farther survey is recommended for rural and public school scenes as against the urban and private school scenes. It is besides recommended that an ADM attack be applied to other countries of mathematics where pupils perform ill. Keywords: Attitude, Computer, Constructivist TheoryIntroductionEducation, such a critical force and major participant in a state ‘s economic system, liberates the head and opens up broad chance to whoever acquires it. An educated people can utilize available technological developments to his/her advantage. Today the power of a state is determined non by its portion size of economic wealth but by its technological art. â€Å" The distinction, safety, and wellbeing of states have been entwined for centuries with the ability of their people to cover with sophisticated quantitative thoughts. Leading societies have commanded strong mathematical accomplishments to maintain them on the taking border in scientific discipline, medical specialty, and engineering ( National Mathematics Advisory Panel. Foundations for Success, 2008 ) . Despite the fact that some people do n't hold much preference for mathematics and see it as an highly hard topic, it is a necessity in all aspects of society. Two chief grounds for troubles of larning mathematics are the abstract construction of mathematics and instructors ‘ attempts to do pupils memorise the capable alternatively of assisting them internalise mathematical cognition ( Summers, 2006 ) . In add-on, math learning methods may hold a positive impact on pupils ‘ apprehension and public presentation in this capable country. Information Communication Technology ( ICT ) an country that has pervaded every aspect of human life with the command of computing machine applications giving a competitory border to persons in the school every bit good as occupation markets. ICT can be used to leverage instructional methods in the schools. Harmonizing to Chung ( 2004 ) who noted that mmethods of learning mathematics are founded upon and straight affected by the pedagogue ‘s probes of larning. Teachers must look into and utilize best instruction patterns to impact pupil larning. Computer-based instructions will no uncertainty be a utile method to present mathematical constructs most particularly those viewed as hard subjects. Performance is a map of attitude and ability. To get accomplishments, be it cognitive, affectional or otherwise one must be mentally and emotionally prepared. A incorrect attitude could turn a superb pupil who is capable of doing As into an mean pupils who achieves merely Bs and Cs. Despite the fact that mathematics is a nucleus capable taught at both the Junior and Senior Secondary degrees of Education in Nigeria, pupils continue to execute ill in this topic ( NPE, 2004 ) ; a topic described as the ‘queen of the scientific disciplines ‘ by the celebrated German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. The Chief Examiners ‘ studies ( Nigeria ) of the West African Senior School Certificate Examination all said that pupil ‘s public presentation in mathematics continues to be hapless, but laid accent on geometric building as one of the countries where pupils performed ill ( May/June 1998, Nov/Dec 1998, Nov/Dec 2003 and Nov/Dec 2004, Table 1. ) . Reasons for this amongst others were attributed to: Poor appreciation of the inside informations needed for replying inquiries Insufficient borings and tutorials from instructors and deficiency of sufficient single assignments and undertaking The suggestions made for betterment were: Students should organize survey groups and exchange thoughts Students ‘ cognition of the basicss of English Language should be improved More drills and tutorials should be given by instructors. Sufficient single assignment and undertaking should be used to prosecute pupils. Year Campaigners ‘ Strengths Campaigners ‘ Failing May/June 1998 Logarithm Linear Equations Statisticss Linear EquationsGeometric buildingTrigonometry Coincident Equations Set Theory Nov/Dec 1998 Logarithm Statisticss Set TheoryGeometric buildingBearings Trigonometry Nov/Dec 2003 Statisticss Number bases Longitude and LatitudeGeometric buildingWord job on Inequalities Bearings Nov/Dec 2004 Probability Commercial Arithmetic Linear Equation Explicating Algebraic Expression Geometric Construction Bearings Set Theory Use of Four Figure tabular array â€Å" Table 1 † : Performance in subjects examined at the SSCE Examination The issues raised above and the fact that good cognition of geometric buildings ( The mathematics of the belongingss, measuring, and relationships of points, lines, angles, surfaces, and solids ) are of import foundations for pupils who will wish to foster their instruction in such countries as mathematics, technology, natural philosophies and other subjects under Science and Technology ( S & A ; T ) – an country of Education the Federal Government of Nigeria is passionate about its function in national development. These are what necessitated this survey.Purpose of the surveyThe intent of this survey was to: Investigate possible differences between the impact of traditional method of learning geometric building and the aided find method Show the importance of appropriate methodological analysis in teaching/learning, particularly in Mathematics. Look for any relationships between public presentation and instructional methods Investigate whether attitude and methodological analysis impact pupils ‘ public presentation in mathematical geometric building Suggest ways that can be used, to guarantee betterment in instruction of geometric building in mathematics.MethodologyResearch inquiriesDepartment of energies attitude play a function in accomplishment in geometric building in mathematics? What are the impacts of the traditional method of instruction and the aided find method on pupils ‘ accomplishment in mathematics geometric building? Does Gender hold any function in accomplishment in geometric building in mathematics?Research HypothesissStudents ‘ attitude will non significantly affect their accomplishment in geometric There is no statistically important difference between public presentation of computing machine and chalkboard groups There is no statistically important difference between male and female pupils in the combined dependant variables that make up the acquisition resultsDesign of the StudyThis survey made usage of both study and experimental designs, get downing with a study to find pupils ‘ attitude to mathematics by and large and geometric building in peculiar, followed by four hebdomads tutorials to two integral categoriesPopulation of the surveyThe population of the survey comprised the SS2 Students in Private Secondary Schools in Lagos State. ( Since Mathematics is compulsory )Sample and Sampling TechniquesThe sample size comprised of 62 pupils was used for the survey. These pupils were drawn from two indiscriminately selected Private Secondary Schools from a Local Government Area of Lagos State, one of the 36 provinces doing up Nigeria. The pupils were selected from integral SS2 categories in the schools comprising of 35 male and 27 female. There were 33 pupils from Science integral categor ies of one school and 29 pupils from Social Science integral categories ( Commercial ) of another school. The SS2 pupils in these schools had a pretest. The pretest books were graded out of 30marks. The average mark for a Social Science category was 9.45 while for the scientific discipline category it was 11.18. These agencies were used as benchmarks to sort the pupils into More Knowing Others ( MKO ) and Less Knowledgeable Others ( LKO ) . Any pupils hiting above the mean were classified as MKO while pupil hiting below the mean was classified as LKO. The scientific discipline category and societal scientific discipline categories were assigned as experimental and control group severally. The ground for this was that the schools where the scientific discipline sample was drawn had all the installations needed for computer-based instruction, such resources as computing machines, internet entree, changeless power supply, and a contributing research lab. Students could utilize the bundle at their free periods which afforded them the chance to make single farther work. The MKO and LKO were indiscriminately mixed in the category to accomplish a collaborative acquisition consequence ; the purpose of this randomisation was to neutralize all immaterial variables such as sex, personality, age, race, parents ‘ educational position, hapless nutrition, etc. that may impact the findings of this research work. However such step ining variables as fixed mathematics course of study, clip available after categories, decrease in attending and assimilation which may be due to tire after normal school hours could non be controlled.Research InstrumentsThe research instruments used were: Twenty-eight point questionnaire titled â€Å" Survey of Attitude to Mathematicss † ( SAM ) to happen out pupils ‘ attitude toward mathematics by and large and geometric building in peculiar. And A three-item word-problem type, teacher made Mathematics Achievement Test in Geometric Construction ( MATGC ) was administered as a pre trial to command and experimental group for classification of the MKO and LKO. The same trial was administered to both the control and experimental group as a station trial. The MATGC was drawn from past West African Examination Council ( WAEC ) , Secondary School Certificate Examination ( SSCE ) inquiries ( 1998-2008 ) . The pick of WAEC, SSCE inquiries was based on the fact that they are standardised trial inquiries which had already undergone cogency and dependability trials by WAEC. It is besides the scrutiny the pupils will take at the completion of their Senior Secondary Education.Method of Data CollectionThe pupils were divided into two groups, a control and experimental group. The SAM was administered to both groups by the research worker with the aid of the mathematics instructors of the categories used. The pupils were encouraged to reply a ll inquiries in the questionnaire while the benefits that will accrue from the research were clearly explained to them. Deduction of non replying all inquiries in the questionnaire was besides explained to them. The Students were given codifications alternatively of utilizing their names to conceal their individuality in order to promote them to take part in the research. These codifications were written on the single Survey of Attitude to Mathematics ( SAM ) . Method of informations aggregation for the MATGC: The three-item trials were administered to the experimental and control group with the aid of their category instructors. The engagement of the instructor was necessary if the pupil will take the research earnestly and for meaningful informations aggregation. The same designation codification used for the SAM by an single pupil was used for the MATGC. This enabled the research worker to fit the documents of the pupils together. The pretest books were graded out of 30 Markss utilizing a marker usher which was developed and used for rating the trial. The tonss were analyzed in order to place the More Knowing Others ( MKO ) and Less Knowledgeable Others ( LKO ) in the experimental group. A mark above the experimental group category mean ( Mean=7.58 ) qualified a pupil for MKO class while a mark less than the average qualifies a pupil for LKO. The MKO and LKO were made to sit alternately in their several categories to accomplish the collaborative acquisition consequence ; the purpose of this randomisation was to neutralize all immaterial variables such as sex, personality, age, race, parents ‘ educational position, hapless nutrition etc that may impact the findings of this research work. However, such intervening variables as fixed mathematics course of study, clip available after categories, decrease in attending and assimilation which may be due to tire after normal school hours could non be controlled. The two groups of pupils ( i.e. the experimental and command groups ) were now taken through a four hebdomads learning of one hr per twenty-four hours for every other twenty-four hours ( i.e. Mondays, Midweeks and Fridays ) . Classs were conducted after the stopping point of the regular categories, which was designed to take attention of non interrupting the normal mathematics categories and seting those taking portion in the experiment at a disadvantage. The research worker took the experimental groups while the controlled groups were taken by their single mathematics instructor who had been before taught how to utilize the lesson program drawn up by the research worker. The entire figure of contact period came to three hours a hebdomad and a sum of 12 hours for the full period of learning. Consent from school authorization and parents had been antecedently sought. Students in the experimental group were taught utilizing the ADM method, a collaborative-based group learning utilizing the computing machine. The ADM was an cyberspace based geometric building tutorial developed by John Page on hypertext transfer protocol: //www.mathopenref.com/ . The pick of this bundle is the simpleness with which it taught geometric building, utilizing lifes and graphical illustration. Students of the experimental group have entree to computing machines and to the bundle at school during their free periods or if they have internet entree at place thereby larning further on their ain. The bundle is synergistic, provides good visual image for the pupils, it is free for all users, intriguing and captivates the pupils ‘ involvement. It hence provides good apprehension for pupils. Students were now required to execute buildings affecting angle 750, 150O, 1050 angles. Any angle which are non basic have to undergo some uses such as add-on or minus. This was the major jobs the pupils faced. At this point they were allowed to join forces in add-on the MKO were to help the LKO to acquire to a point they could use the construct and build the assorted angles on their ain. The control groups who were taught by their several instructors were taught utilizing the chalkboard, chalkboard compass, and swayer as a medium of direction. They were taught how to build basic angles, , how to bisect angles, buildings affecting angle 750, 150O, 1050, i.e angle which have to undergo some uses such as add-on or minus. No coaction was allowed in this group. Drills and assignments were given to both the experimental and control groups at the terminal of each contact period, while two group undertakings were given to both groups after the terminal of the contact periods. The SAM and the MATGC were now administered to the control and experimental group as station intervention. The responses to SAM and the trial documents were collected, scored and analyzed.Method of Data AnalysisAll informations gathered were organized and analyzed utilizing the undermentioned stairss. The responses from the pre and station SAM were placed against the four- point Likert Scaling, Strongly Agree ( SA=4 ) , Agree ( A=3 ) , Strongly Disagree ( SD=2 ) and Disagree ( D=1 ) for positive statements while the points were reversed for negative statements i.e. ( SA=1 ) , ( A=2 ) , ( SD=3 ) ( D=4 ) . Descriptive analyses was used for the SAM. There were no uncomplete responses to any questionnaire since the filing of the questionnaire was closely monitored by the research worker to guarantee all inquiries were answered by pupils. The MATGC was scored out of 30 Markss utilizing a marking strategy. The pre and station tonss from MATGC were subjected to Pearson Correlation coefficient analysis for variables that can be ranked and ordered, e.g public presentation and attitude, while t-test statistics was used for variables with no order such as relationship between attitude and instructional method while relationships amongst multiple variables such as attitude, public presentation and methodological analysis were subjected to multivariate analysis of discrepancy ( MANOVA ) . Arrested development analysis was besides used to happen out the part of each of the independent variables to the dependent variables. All hypotheses were tested at 0.05 degree of significance.FindingssIn this research, three research inquiries and four hypotheses were posed. The consequences of the pre-test and post-test of MATGC were analyzed utilizing agencies, standard divergence ( S.D ) , t-test statistics. All hypotheses were tested at 0.05 degree of significance. A p- value ( deliberate value ) & lt ; than 0.05 leads to rejection of the void hypothesis, otherwise it is accepted. HYPOTHESIS I- Students ‘ Attitude will non significantly affect their accomplishment in geometric building Table1a: The Pearson correlativity between attitude and accomplishment before interventionVariablePre-Attitude markPre-Achievement markPearson correlativity ( R ) 1.000 0.038 P – value 0.684 Nitrogen 62 62Pre – Accomplishment markPearson correlativity ( R ) 0.038 1.000 P – value 0.684 Nitrogen 62 62 Table1b The Pearson Correlation between Attitude and Achievement after interventionVariablePost-Attitude markPost-Achievement markPost attitude mark Pearson correlativity ( R ) 1.000 0.005 P – value 0.955 Nitrogen 62 62Post – Accomplishment markPearson correlativity ( R ) 0.005 1.000 P – value 0.955 Nitrogen 62 62 From Table 1a above, the Pearson-correlation coefficient between accomplishment mark and the attitudinal mark before intervention was positive but weak ( r=.038 ) . The p-value which is the important value of correlativity between the two variables ( pre- accomplishment mark and pre-attitudinal mark ) is r=0.684 which was greater than 0.05 demoing that the correlativity was non important before intervention. From Table 1b shows the Pearson-correlation coefficient between accomplishment mark and the attitudinal mark after intervention ( r=.005 ) , which was positive but weaker than earlier intervention, while the p-value which is the important value of correlativity between the two variables ( post accomplishment mark and station attitudinal mark ) was p=0.955. The values showed a farther weakening of the relationship between attitude and public presentation. Since this is greater than 0.05 i.e P & gt ; 0.05, it follows that the correlativity was non important. Therefore there was no important relationship between the station accomplishment mark and station attitudinal mark. The attitude of pupils hence did non significantly affect their accomplishment in geometric building. HYPOTHESIS II- There is no statistically important difference between public presentation of computing machine and chalkboard groups. Table 2a: T-test analysis of pretest tonss for control ( Blackboard ) and experimental groups Treatment group Nitrogen Mean S.D df tcalc p-value Experimental Group 33 8.58 6.37 60 1.634 0.108 Control Group 29 6.17 5.02 Table 2b: T-test analysis of station -test tonss for control and experimental groups Treatment group Nitrogen Mean S.D df tcalc p-value Experimental Group 33 11.18 8.59 60 0.932 0.355 Control Group 29 9.45 5.48 The pre-test as shown in table 1a above, the mean of the experimental group ( = 8.58 ) is higher than that of the control group ( = 6.17 ) . The p-value which is the important value shows that the difference is non important ( p & gt ; 0.05 ) . The hypothesis is hence upheld for the pretest. Table 2b presents the post-test tonss and the t-test analysis which showed that the experimental group maintained the lead with a mean of 11.18 over the control group with a mean of 9.45. The t-test analysis shows that the important value of 0.355 is besides greater than 0.05. Again, the hypothesis is upheld in the station trial tonss. In drumhead, from the tabular arraies 2a and 2b above, the experimental group ( computing machine group ) performed better in both the pre and station trials than the control group as evidenced by the agencies ; but the difference in the average public presentations of the two groups is non important. It so follows that the impact of the computing machine assisted direction is non noticeable. HYPOTHESIS III: There is no statistically important difference between male and female pupils in the combined dependant variables that make up the acquisition results Note: The variables that make up the acquisition outcomes in this survey are Students ‘ accomplishment ( tonss ) in geometric building scrutiny. Students ‘ attitude to geometric building. A one-way between groups Multivariate Analysis of Variance ( MANOVA ) was performed to look into sex differences in larning results ( accomplishment and attitudes ) . Two dependent variables ( Achievement in geometric building scrutiny and attitude to geometric building ) were involved. The independent variable was gender. There was a statistically important difference between males and females on the combined dependant variable: F ( 2, 58 ) = 3.763, P = 0.029 ; with lambda = 0.885 ; Eta squared = 0.115. when the consequences for the dependent variables were considered individually utilizing 0.05 alpha degree of significance, the lone difference to make statistical significance was the accomplishment mark after intervention: F ( 1,59 ) = 6.713, P = 0.012 ; Basque Homeland and Freedom squared = 0.102. An review of the average tonss indicated that males reported higher tonss ( intend = 13.154, SD = 7.00 ) than females ( average = 8.457, S.D = 7.01 ) . HYPOTHESIS IV: There is no statistically important difference between computing machine and chalkboard groups in the combined dependant variables that make up the acquisition results. Note: The variables that make up the acquisition outcomes in this survey are ; Students ‘ accomplishment tonss in geometric building scrutiny. Students ‘ attitude to geometric building A one-way between groups Multivariate Analysis of Variance ( MANOVA ) was performed to look into differences in larning result ( achievement and attitudes ) . Two dependent variables ( Achievement in geometric building scrutiny and Attitude to geometric building ) were involved. The independent variable was instructional methodological analysis. There was no statistically important difference between computing machine and chalkboard groups on the combined dependent variables: F ( 2, 59 ) = 0.591, p=0.557 ; Wilks ‘ lamda = 0.980, Eta squared = 0.020. When the consequences of the dependent variables were considered individually, none of the differences reached statistical significance. An review of the average tonss indicated that the computing machine group performed better in both achievement tonss in geometric building scrutiny and attitude to geometric building than the chalkboard group. Below are the agencies and standard divergences. The Hypothesis is hence upheld that ther e is no significance difference between the two groups in the combined dependent variables. Dependent variable Group Mean S.D Achievement trial in geometric building Computer group 11.18 8.59 Blackboard group 9. 45 5.48 Attitude to geometric building Computer group 71.97 4.24 Blackboard group 70.76 10.13DiscussionThe credence of this hypothesis provides replies to the research inquiry, â€Å" Does Assisted Discovery Method of direction affect pupils ‘ accomplishment in geometric building positively † . The hypothesis may non be important and does non uphold Rosen ‘s ( 2007 ) survey on â€Å" Different Learning Environments Provide Different Learning Experiences † where he stated that overall constructivist acquisition environments are more effectual than traditional 1s, but to the contrary to outlooks, traditional scenes did non differ from constructivist 1s when traditionally-appropriate steps were used. The consequences of this probe were able to reply some of the research inquiries: What are the impact of the ADM and traditional method of learning on pupils ‘ accomplishment in mathematics geometric building? Harmonizing to hypothesis two, the mean and standard divergence of both the pre and station trial was non statistically important therefore there may non be any noticeable impact that instructional engineering had on public presentation of both the control and experimental group. The ADM attack nevertheless, harmonizing to hypothesis four revealed a better attack in footings of betterment in both accomplishment and attitude of the experimental group. There was merely a little impact in attitudinal alteration after the intercession from the experimental group. The ground for this could be attributed to the involvement pupils have in computer-based instruction as supported by earlier findings of ( Salami 2008 ) that pupils taught mathematics with computing machine engineeri ng achieved cognitively higher than those taught without computing machine engineering. Further research by Julia in ( Salami 2008 ) stated â€Å" computing machine tutorials, developing through World Wide Web etc can be a rewarding utile experience for pupils † . The Impact Gender played in attitude and public presentation to geometric building survey revealed that male ( average =13.154 ) as against female ( mean=8.457 ) performed better in geometric building than females. This may be topic specific as there are surveies to demo that mathematic public presentation is non gender particular.DecisionThis research has been able to demo that both the traditional method of direction and the computing machine based method plays an of import function in learning and larning.The deduction for this is a demand to:Deduction to PracticeStudents ‘ attitude is cardinal to larning and instructors should make all possible to instill in pupils the right attitude. ADM attack should be applied to other countries of mathematics where pupils perform ill.Deduction to PolicyBetter on mathematics curriculum by seting more accent on usage of Instructional AIDSs in instruction and acquisition. The accent should be on the usage and non which specific one as from this survey the attitude of pupils to whether traditional or computer-based was non important, but the impact of instructional method was noticeable in public presentation.More teacher preparation development plan in current instructional methodological analysisFemale pupils should be given more encouragement in larning mathematics.Further SurveiesA farther survey is recommended for rural and public school scenes as against the urban and private school scenes used for this survey.

Friday, January 3, 2020

Emotional Freedom Technique, And, Meridian Tapping, Or...

Emotional Freedom Technique, also known as EFT, Meridian Tapping, or just tapping, was developed by Gary Craig in the early 90’s. EFT is a process that involves a mind and energy connection termed the â€Å"psychological acupressure technique†. An individual would self-administer an EFT therapy by tapping on the end points of the body’s energy meridians while thinking about a specific problem. Repeating a positive affirmation while either rubbing or tapping, has shown to clear the emotional block and restoring balance. Many results have found EFT to be effective in dealing with phobias, fears, cravings, pain and negative emotions. Personally, I have not yet taken a course in EFT, but I am interested in understanding the effects of EFT on soldiers returning from combat and determine if it is a suitable choice for dealing with PTSD and other traumatic experiences. I would eventually like to utilize the Emotional Freedom Technique in conjunction with other modalitie s to help patients dealing with trauma. Introduction Emotional Freedom Techniques was structured on the same points utilized in classic acupuncture, which has managed both physical and emotional conditions for thousands of years, but without using needles. Rather, the individual would use the fingertips to aid kinetic energy onto meridian point along the head and chest while thinking about an issue and using confident verbal affirmations. The sequence of using both tapping and positive statements work to remove theShow MoreRelatedDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesSelf-Awareness 46 Self-Awareness Assessment 46 Emotional Intelligence Assessment 47 The Defining Issues Test 48 v Cognitive Style Indicator 52 Locus of Control Scale 52 Tolerance of Ambiguity Scale 54 Core Self-Evaluation Scale (CSES) 56 SKILL LEARNING 57 Key Dimensions of Self-Awareness 57 The Enigma of Self-Awareness 58 The Sensitive Line 58 Understanding and Appreciating Individual Differences Important Areas of Self-Awareness 61 Emotional Intelligence 62 Values 65 Ethical Decision MakingRead MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pagesdance culture that was still raw and far from respectable. He actually preferred classical music. The club’s name, the Ministry of Sound, ironically recalled Palumbo’s father, a former Minister in the Conservative government of the day. Yet within just 10 years, Palumbo built the Ministry of Sound into a music and media empire worth nearly  £150m. Two years later, Palumbo had quit as chief executive and the Ministry of Sound was looking for a new strategic direction. The Ministry of Sound’s startRead MoreManagin g Information Technology (7th Edition)239873 Words   |  960 PagesContract CASE STUDY IV-5 Systems Support for a New Baxter Manufacturing Company Plant in Mexico CASE STUDY IV-6 The Challenges of Local System Design for Multinationals: The MaxFli Sales Force Automation System at BAT CASE STUDY IV-7 Meridian Hospital Systems, Inc.: Deciding Which IT Company to Join CASE STUDY IV-8 Mary Morrison’s Ethical Issue Seventh Edition Managing Information Technology Carol V. Brown Howe School of Technology Management, Stevens Institute of Technology